tally 9.2 tutorial

Tally
 This is financial accounting software developed by ltd in India. Its release version is 5.0, 5.4, 6.3, 7.2, 9.0, 9.1, and 9.2, respectively in the market tally is user friendly in the software. Very simply we can pass vouchers and check out different accounting report too. We can maintain account of school, boarding, college, shopping centers, trading houses & others.
Starting
1  first go to start menu
2.choose program
3.choose tally 9.0 & click on it
4.then tally 9.0 screen will appear
                        Or
1.go to start menu
2.choose search potion
3.Choose search file & folder & click on it.
4.then search dialog box will appear
5.give the tally in search box
6.click on search option
7.Then u can see search result & choose tally 9.0 & click on it.
Creating a company
 Directory: - give the data path where u wants the company to get created. This field is skipped by default assuming that u wish to create the company in the tally. However, if you want to change it simply use the backspace key & change it to whatever required.
Name: - give the name of the company whose books are being opened it is typically your company. If u r a professional accountant & are main training the books of your clients, give the client company name.
Mailing name: - Specify the mailing name if difference then the name.
 Address:- specify the address, phone  no. etc. of the company eg,                                               
                     Nava qurin, dallas texas, 01235546
E-mail:- a-mail address
Eg. hlo36@yahoo.com
Income tax no.:- pan no, or optional
local sales tax no.:- optional
Enter state sales tax no.:-optional
Currency symbol: - eg. Rs & dm $
Maintain:- you can get 3 options in this field
Accounts only:- to maintain alc only
Account with inventory:- to maintain account & inventory both
Inventory only:- to maintain only inventory
Financial year from:- you have to type the data for financial year
Books begin from:- the actual data of starting the accounts.
Use security control:- in tally u can use separate password to maintain the security level. If u type yes in this option u have to give the name of administrator & password & repeat again.
      Altering of company:- (alt+f3)
(To modify or delete company)
Go to company information or press alt+ f3 key
From tally dialog box click on alter
A company list will appear
 Choose the company & highly gut it which u want to alter
Then press enter your selected company form will appear, delete or modify the company’s data as your required.
If u wants to delete company in list then press alt + D key.
Shutting of company :-( alt+f1)
(To hide unnecessary company from selected company list)
From company shut company &
Click on it
Highlight the company which u want to shut & click on enter.
Your chosen company will hide (shut) from list.
Inventory information
Stock Group:-
Gateway of tally
Inventory info
Stock group
Click on create option
Give the stock group name eg. Lg, noodles, hard drink etc.
You can define & choose under primary option
At list press Venter key & accept repeat this process which u wants to creating group.
Stock items
This potion is using to create every
Give stock items for your company like 14’’ TV, moyous, rumpum, etc.
You can choose required under group for example you will create 14’’ color TV then you can choose Lg stock group.
You will define required unit if u want to create recently unit then, press Alt+C.
You have stock items then gives opening balance others wise u didn’t give only create stock items & acceptor items.
You have items then give qty. rate.
Location godown
                       Room 1       room 2          room 3
Location OR Godowns
First press F11 features
Choose inventory features
Then, choose storage & classification field
Activate to Maintain Multiple location or godowns options
Then, you can go to gate way of tally list
Choose inventory info option choose locations & press enter key.
Then, create location ex. Narayanghat first define main location under & other as your requirement.
To show location 
Getway of tally list
Choose display option & press enter key.
Choose statement of inventory option
Then, choose location & show the required location as your requirement.
Stock categories
First activate F11 features of storage & classification
A ctivate maintain stock categories option
At that go to gateway of tally list.
Choose inventory info
Choose & click on stock categories
Create your categories name of your requirement.
Stock journal (F7)
: - this option is using any stock items consumption & production to our company foe company any purpose.
Gateway of tally
Choose inventory voucher
Choose stock journal or press F7 option
Then, stock journal box will appear
Entry, the data source (consummate) & Destination (production)
If you entry sure life then your stock summery

Voucher entry
           (For single entry model & invoice by using purchase & sales)
   Sales & purchase with cash purchase Ac/F9

First press f11 features
Choose inventory features
Then, see many items of features in list
Activate allow invoices & enter purchase invoice purchase in format
Other press F12 configuration
Choose voucher entry mode
Then
Go to way of tally
Choose accounting voucher
Choose purchase or press F9
Entry purchase items give list
You can also create ledger then, press Alt+C
Give required party ac name like cash & other traders or cmp. (if you want to purchase cash then choose cash option)
You will define purchase ledger & choose purchase  ac under press enter key
Alt last give a narration & press enter
Sales
Go to getway of tally
Choose
Accounting voucher
Choose sales or press F8
Entry sales items given list
You can also create ledger then press Alt+C
Give required traders or emporium or cost omer name
Press enter key
          Quotation (price list)
First press F11 features
Choose sales management
Choose & activate price list
Choose inventory information
Choose & activate in use multiple price level for sales management
Then you can choose use multiple price for invoicing
Then you can see company price levels
Define required items ex. Wholesalers, retailer, customer 4
Then
Activates price list
Go to way of tally list
Choose inventory
Choose price list option
Give & set required price in required items as your company information
Purchase order & sale order processing
First go to F11 features
Choose inventory information
Choose order processing
Activate purchase order processing & sales order processing
Then, go to inventory voucher
Choose enter
Purchase order (press F4) or sales order ( press F5)
At that time give order slip on & give order list items when you went to purchase order or sales order
Press enter key or accept your purchase order list as sales order list
At last press accept your order list display purchase order & sales order
Gateway of tally display
Choose statement of inventory option
Choose either sales order summary or purchase order summary as your requirement

Balance Sheet Financial Ratio Analysis

What is ratio analysis? The Balance Sheet and the Statement of Income are essential, but they are only the starting point for successful financial management. Apply Ratio Analysis to Financial Statements to analyze the success, failure, and progress of your business.
Ratio Analysis enables the business owner/manager to spot trends in a business and to compare its performance and condition with the average performance of similar businesses in the same industry. To do this compare your ratios with the average of businesses similar to yours and compare your own ratios for several successive years, watching especially for any unfavorable trends that may be starting. Ratio analysis may provide the all-important early warning indications that allow you to solve your business problems before your business is destroyed by them.
Balance Sheet Ratio Analysis Formula
Important Balance Sheet Ratios measure liquidity and solvency (a business's ability to pay its bills as they come due) and leverage (the extent to which the business is dependent on creditors' funding). They include the following ratios:
Liquidity Ratios
These ratios indicate the ease of turning assets into cash. They include the Current Ratio, Quick Ratio, and Working Capital.
Current Ratios. The Current Ratio is one of the best known measures of financial strength. It is figured as shown below:
Current Ratio =
Total Current Assets
____________________
Total Current Liabilities
The main question this ratio addresses is: "Does your business have enough current assets to meet the payment schedule of its current debts with a margin of safety for possible losses in current assets, such as inventory shrinkage or collectable accounts?" A generally acceptable current ratio is 2 to 1. But whether or not a specific ratio is satisfactory depends on the nature of the business and the characteristics of its current assets and liabilities. The minimum acceptable current ratio is obviously 1:1, but that relationship is usually playing it too close for comfort.
If you decide your business's current ratio is too low, you may be able to raise it by:
• Paying some debts.
• Increasing your current assets from loans or other borrowings with a maturity of more than one year.
• Converting non-current assets into current assets.
• Increasing your current assets from new equity contributions.
• Putting profits back into the business.
Quick Ratios. The Quick Ratio is sometimes called the "acid-test" ratio and is one of the best measures of liquidity. It is figured as shown below:
Quick Ratio =
Cash + Government Securities + Receivables
______________________________________
Total Current Liabilities
The Quick Ratio is a much more exacting measure than the Current Ratio. By excluding inventories, it concentrates on the really liquid assets, with value that is fairly certain. It helps answer the question: "If all sales revenues should disappear, could my business meet its current obligations with the readily convertible `quick' funds on hand?"
An acid-test of 1:1 is considered satisfactory unless the majority of your "quick assets" are in accounts receivable, and the pattern of accounts receivable collection lags behind the schedule for paying current liabilities.
Working Capital. Working Capital is more a measure of cash flow than a ratio. The result of this calculation must be a positive number. It is calculated as shown below:
Working Capital = Total Current Assets - Total Current Liabilities
Bankers look at Net Working Capital over time to determine a company's ability to weather financial crises. Loans are often tied to minimum working capital requirements.
AÂ  general observation about these three Liquidity Ratios is that the higher they are the better, especially if you are relying to any significant extent on creditor money to finance assets.
Leverage Ratio
This Debt/Worth or Leverage Ratio indicates the extent to which the business is reliant on debt financing (creditor money versus owner's equity):
Debt/Worth Ratio =
Total Liabilities
_______________
Net Worth
Generally, the higher this ratio, the more risky a creditor will perceive its exposure in your business, making it correspondingly harder to obtain credit.
Income Statement Ratio Analysis
The following important State of Income Ratios measure profitability:
Gross Margin Ratio
This ratio is the percentage of sales dollars left after subtracting the cost of goods sold from net sales. It measures the percentage of sales dollars remaining (after obtaining or manufacturing the goods sold) available to pay the overhead expenses of the company.
Comparison of your business ratios to those of similar businesses will reveal the relative strengths or weaknesses in your business. The Gross Margin Ratio is calculated as follows:
Gross Margin Ratio =
Gross Profit
_______________
Net Sales
(Gross Profit = Net Sales - Cost of Goods Sold)
Net Profit Margin Ratio
This ratio is the percentage of sales dollars left after subtracting the Cost of Goods sold and all expenses, except income taxes. It provides a good opportunity to compare your company's "return on sales" with the performance of other companies in your industry. It is calculated before income tax because tax rates and tax liabilities vary from company to company for a wide variety of reasons, making comparisons after taxes much more difficult. The Net Profit Margin Ratio is calculated as follows:
Net Profit Margin Ratio =
Net Profit Before Tax
_____________________
Net Sales
Management Ratios
Other important ratios, often referred to as Management Ratios, are also derived from Balance Sheet and Statement of Income information.
Inventory Turnover Ratio
This ratio reveals how well inventory is being managed. It is important because the more times inventory can be turned in a given operating cycle, the greater the profit. The Inventory Turnover Ratio is calculated as follows:
Inventory Turnover Ratio =
Net Sales
___________________________
Average Inventory at Cost
Accounts Receivable Turnover Ratio
This ratio indicates how well accounts receivable are being collected. If receivables are not collected reasonably in accordance with their terms, management should rethink its collection policy. If receivables are excessively slow in being converted to cash, liquidity could be severely impaired. The Accounts Receivable Turnover Ratio is calculated as follows:
Net Credit Sales/Year
__________________ = Daily Credit Sales
365 Days/Year
Accounts Receivable Turnover (in days) =
Accounts Receivable
_________________________
Daily Credit Sales
Return on Assets Ratio
This measures how efficiently profits are being generated from the assets employed in the business when compared with the ratios of firms in a similar business. A low ratio in comparison with industry averages indicates an inefficient use of business assets. The Return on Assets Ratio is calculated as follows:
Return on Assets =
Net Profit Before Tax
________________________
Total Assets
Return on Investment (ROI) Ratio.
The ROI is perhaps the most important ratio of all. It is the percentage of return on funds invested in the business by its owners. In short, this ratio tells the owner whether or not all the effort put into the business has been worthwhile. If the ROI is less than the rate of return on an alternative, risk-free investment such as a bank savings account, the owner may be wiser to sell the company, put the money in such a savings instrument, and avoid the daily struggles of small business management. The ROI is calculated as follows:
Return on Investment =
Net Profit before Tax
____________________
Net Worth
These Liquidity, Leverage, Profitability, and Management Ratios allow the business owner to identify trends in a business and to compare its progress with the performance of others through data published by various sources. The owner may thus determine the business's relative strengths and weaknesses.

Current Ratio
Current ratio is the ratio of current assets of a business to its current liabilities. It is the most widely used test of liquidity of a business and measures the ability of a business to repay its debts over the period of next 12 months.
Formula
Current ratio is calculated using the following formula:
Current Ratio = Current Assets
Current Liabilities
Both the above figures can be obtained from thebalance sheet of the business. Current assets are the assets of a business expected to be converted to cash or used up in next 12 months or within the normal operating cycle of the business. Current liabilities on the other hand are the obligations of a business which need to be settled within next 12 months or within the normal operating cycle.
Analysis
Current ratio matches current assets with current liabilities and tells us whether the current assets are enough to settle current liabilities. Current ratio below 1 shows critical liquidity problems because it means that total current liabilities exceed total current assets. General rule is that higher the current ratio better it is but there is a limit to this. Abnormally high value of current ratio may indicate existence of idle or underutilized resources in the company.
Examples
Example 1: On December 31, 2009 Company A had current assets of $100,000 and current liabilities of $50,000. Calculate its current ratio.
Solution
Current ratio = $100,000 ÷ $50,000 = 2.00
Example 2: On December 31, 2010 Company B had total asset of $150,000, equity of $75,000, non-current assets of $50,000 and non-current liabilities of $50,000. Calculate the current ratio.
Solution
To calculate current ratio, we need to calculate current assets and current liabilities first:
Current Assets = Total Asset − Non-Current Assets = $150,000 − $50,000 = $100,000
Total Liabilities = Total Assets − Total Equity = $150,000 − $75,000 = $75,000
Current Liabilities = $75,000 − $50,000 = $25,000
Current Ratio = $100,000 ÷ $25,000 = 4.00

Ports and Connectors

Ports and Connectors are divided into three types, they are as follows:

1)      Legacy Multifunction Port (L.M.P):

a)      Serial Ports:

9-Pin Serial Port:

This port is used to connect 9-pin serial mouse connector and 25-pin serial port can be used to connect printer, scanner, and external device. In serial communication data transfer rate is 1bit at a time with 115 Kbps speed.

a)      Parallel Ports/Printer Port:

25-pin Parallel Port:

            This port can be used to connect printer scanner and external device. In parallel communication data transfer rate is 1-byte at a time with 150 KBps speed.

1)      Standard Single-Function Port:

a)      The Keyboard Port:

Key Board Port –

-          5 Pin DIN Connector 

-          6 Pin PS/2 Port 

b)      The Mouse Port:

-          9-pin Serial Port: (Now a day’s not in use)

-          PS2/Port – Used to connect PS/2 mouse.                                                      

                                                       

c)      Video Port:

Video port can be used to connect video device like monitor, projector, etc. Basically there are two types of Video Port:

i)        VGA (Video Graphics Adaptor):- VGA port present in 15-pin with three rows. In this port, we can connect, LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) and CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitor.

                          

ii)      DVI (Digital Video Interface):- In this port only LCD Monitor is connected in previous time.

d)      Audio Port:

Audio Port is used to connect audio device like speaker, microphone and headphone.

i)        Green Color-  Speaker

ii)      Blue Color-  Headphone

iii)     Pink Color- Microphone

e)     Multimedia Port:

This types of port can be support both audio and video like TV card. This types of ports can be used HDMI (Higher Definition Multimedia Interface) Connector.

f)      Joystick Port/Game Port: Game Port present in 15-pin that can be used to connect joystick.

g)       Modem Port: This Port can be defined as network poet who can be used for dial-up internet through a telephone line. This port uses RJ11 Connector.

h)      Network  Interface Port:

This port is also other types of Network Port, which can use cable internet and local area Network. This port can be used RJ45 connector. (RJ- Registered Jack)

1)    Modern Multifunction Port:

a)     USB (Universal Serial Bus):

It is the modern types of port which can support 127 devices. Basically there are two types of USB, they are:

i)       USB 1.1:- 12 mbps (speed)

ii)    USB 2.0:- 480 mbps (speed)

It have two types of connector, they are:

(1) Type A Connector: - A connector which can be connected in your computer.

(2) Type B Connector: - A connector which can be connected in devices.

b)    IEEE 1394 (Institute Of Electrical And Electrical Engineers):

It is also other types of modern port, which support different 63 devices. This port is also called as FireWire port (Apple) or iLink, (Sony)

Basically there are two types of ports;

(1) IEEE 1394a- 400 mbps

(2) IEEE 1394b- 800 mbps

c)     SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)

Units used in Computer

	0 or 1 = bit  bit is smallest unit of information 8 bit = 1 Byte 1024 bytes = 1 Kilo Byte 1024 KB = 1 Mega Byte 1024 MB = 1 Giga Byte 1024 GB = 1 Tera Byte 1024 TB = 1 Peta Byte

 

                                                         

 Mother Board

1.     AT Mother Board (AT-Advanced Technology)

-         Small than ATX Motherboard.

-         5-Pin DIN for key board connector.

-         Power supply connector from SMPS to Mother Board is of 12 Pin.

2.     Baby AT

-         It has5-pin DIN port for keyboard

-         It has 12-pin and 20-pin connector for SMPS

3.     ATX Mother Board (ATX – Advanced Technology Extended)

-                   PS/2 key board connector.

-                   Power supply connector from SMPS to Motherboard is of 20-Pin or 24-pin.

-                   All most all parts are built in.

34 Pin Connector

          34-pin connector can be used to connect Floppy Disk drive. Through a single 34-pin connector, we can connect 2 floppy disk drive, when we can connect floppy disk drive, that time we can use 34-pin data cable. (Flat Ribbon Cable)

         

40 Pin Connector

On Motherboard there are two 40-oin connector, which is present for Hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM & DVD-RW. Through a single 40-pin connector, we can connect two devices. When, we connect that device into the motherboard, that time we can use data cable (PATA Cable)

                  

RAM Slots

It is used to fixed RAM cards. Basically there are three types of RAM slots.

i.       SIMM Slot

ii.     DIMM slot

iii.  RIMM slot

1) SIMM (Single Inline Memory Modules)

·     SIMM are mostly in white color.

·     RAM's which connect SIMM slots are connected in a 45° angle.

·     They come in 2 varieties:

                             i) 72 pins – capacity 1MB – 64MB

                             ii) 30 pins – capacity 1MB – 16MB

·     EDO RAM can use 72 pin SIMM slots and this slot is not used any more.

2) DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Modules)

·     All latest computer use DIMM slots.

·     They have white dips which help to lock the RAM into place and they come in 2 varieties.

i.       168-pins – capacity up to 512MB

ii.     184-pins – capacity up to 1 GB

iii.  240-pins – capacity up to 2 GB

·     SDRAM uses 168-pins, DDR I uses 184-pins and DDR II uses 240-pins DIMMs slots.

MICRO DIMM: It comes in 144 pins for LAPTOP computers.

SO DIMM (Small outline DIMM):  It comes in 72 pins and 144 pins for LAPTOP computers.

NOTE: - MICRO DIMM & SO DIMM supports SDRAM & DDR SDRAM.

3) RIMM (Ram Bus Inline Memory Modules)

·     RAM's which connect to RIMM slots have special heat spreader on them for cooling.

·     It comes in 184 pins and only supports RD RAM.

CPU Socket / ZIF Socket (ZIF – Zero Insertion Force)

CPU socket on motherboard is used to mount central processing unit this select is also called ZIF. A ZIF socket contains a number on it which is asked to identify motherboard easily. According to CPU socket number, we have to find out the type of Mother Board.

Socket 4, 5, 7                                         –        Pentium I

Socket 8                                                 -        Pentium Pro

Slot 1                                                      -        Pentium II

PGA 370                                                -        Pentium III

PGA423 & PGA478 and LGA 775        -        Pentium IV and Core Processor

PGA418 & PGA611                             -        Itanium

(PGA- Pin Grid Array and LGA- Land Grid Array)

Expansion BUS (slots)

Expansion BUS

Expansion BUS is uses to extend the capability of computer through expansion BUS or expansion slots. To these expansion buses slots are connected these slots called as expansion slots.

Types of Expansion BUS

1)    Internal Expansion BUS slot

2)    External Expansion BUS slot

1)   Internal Expansion BUS slot :-

PCI (Peripheral Computer Inter Connect)

          Peripheral devices that plug in to the PCI bus include Video Adapters, Sound Card, Net Work Interface Cards, Modem, I/O Cards that add additional ports like parallel, serial or USB ports and specialized devices such as Video Capture Card, TV tuner cards and SCSI Adapter.

          Although PCI slots are on the cutting edge of PC technology, it is still going strong due to its strength, universal adoption by computer markers and due to flexibility.

          PCI sets between the front side BUS and any other expansion BUS. This means that the PCI BUS, along with any devices attached to it, easy able to work independently or with any other expansion BUS.

          PCI BUS works at the speed of 33 MHz and 66 MHz At the speed of 33 MHz we can fixed device that run at 32 bit at the speed of 66 MHz We can fixed the device which can run at 64 bit.

Self Configuration of PCI Slots

          PCI works with plug and play device and operating system to enable self configuration of system resources. (ID address, IRQ and DMA channels)

          The internal expansion slots are:-

       i.            PCI: - This slot looks like small and white colored, which is present for almost all types of card, like TV Card, Modem Card, Sound Card, Network Card etc.

     ii.            AGP: - This slot found in brown colored, which is present for, VGA Card and 3D Games Cards. It is bigger than CNR and AMR Slot.

  iii.            CNR: - This slot found in brown colored, which is present for Network card and Modem Card. It is bigger than AMR slot.

  iv.            AMR: - It is also found in brown colored, which is present for Modem and Audio card.

     v.            ISA: - This is the old type of slot, which is found in large and black colored. This slot can be used to connect all types of card in earlier time.

2) External Expansion BUS slot :-

a)     USB (Universal Serial BUS)

b)    IEEE 1394

Power Connections from SMPS to Devices

The PC’s Power supply converts high-voltage alternating current (AC), Power into the lower Voltage Direct Current (DC) Power that your motherboard and drives needs its internal fan also provides essential cooling for the PC components and drives. In United States, standard AC comes in somewhere between 110 and 120 volts, often written as ~115 V AC. Most of the rest of the world uses 220-240v AC, So, many power supplies have a little switch in the back so you can use them anywhere.

AT SMPS

-         Has 6+6=12 pin connector from SMPS to Mother board.

-         The power supply connector having written P8 & P9.

-         While connecting P8 & P9 connector from SMPS to mother board Black colors wire of P8 & P9 connector's co-inside each other.

ATX SMPS

          Comes with 20-Pin or 24-Pin single connector, i.e. P1 connector from SMPS to mother Board.

Connection From Mother Board to Hard Disk

Connection From Mother Board to CD-ROM or CD-R/W Drive

Molex Connector

Power Supply connector, used to connect from SMPS to HD is called as Molex Connector.

Mini Connector

Power Supply connector, used to connect from SMPS to Floppy Disk is called as Mini Connector.

CPU Technology

ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit):-

 ALU is the part of CPU that actually process data. An ALU takes data from the CPU register, process it, and copes it back into the register before moving on to the next batch of data.

FPU (Floating  Point Unit):-

FPU is the CPU component that handles calculation based on floating point. The floating point unit is specialized CPU component that processes graphic program & 3D game

Registers:-

Register are memory circuit locate inside this CPU that hold data before & after processing. Early Intel processors used primary 32- bit register and modern CPU use 64 & 128 bit register size.

Clock Speed

      The CPU clock speed is a measurement of how many calculations a CPU execute per second. 1 calculation/second = 1Hz (Z = Hertz), billions of calculation per second call MHz (Mega Hertz) but latest CPU measure in billions of cycle per second or GHz(Giga Hertz).

      The maximum CPU speed is determined by two things. The speed of CPU itself and the maximum speed of that motherboard is capable of handling. The CPU speed is determined by manufacture & is set at the factory. The motherboard speed is determined by onboard component called system crystal which is simply quartz crystal circuit that oscillate at a fix frequency when fed currents.

Cache Memory:

To add communication between the CPU & RAM, the special type of memory called static RAM is used this is a cache memory. Cache memory holds frequently using address location of RAM & data.

L1 – Level One Cache Memory

L2 – Level Two Cache Memory.

         

Basically there are two types of cache memory.

1.     level 1 cache ------- built into CPU (internal cache memory)

2.     level 2 cache ------- present on motherboard (external cache memory)

Some Intel processors like Intel xenon & itanium supports L3 cache memory

Clock Multiplayers

-         clock multiplayer are the mechanism the CPU use to run at an even faster speed then set the system crystal clocks.

-         All modern CPU use the clocks multiplayer so in reality, any CPU as two speed. One is Internal speed(it is actual speed of CPU & the external speed which is after clock multiplication)

North Bridge Chip

The north bridge chip is special (IC) controller circuit mounted on the motherboard that assists the CPU. The North Bridge Chip connects the CPU to system RAM

Front Side Bus

The front side Bus is the collective term for the physical pathways connecting the CPU, North Bridge Chip, & RAM. The front side bus consists of two parts one is data bus & another is address bus. Data Bus is pathway CPU access data in RAM. Address bus is a pathways that CPU uses to talks with the other devices & to access the memory location of the RAM.

 

Address space:

-         RAM is made up of millions of individuals storage circuits, similar to the cells of spread sheet table. Each stores one bit of data. CPU read data 1 byte at a time so it takes & individual cells to equal one addressable block of memory.

-         The numbers of wires on the Address Bus defines the max amount of RAM. A CPU can addresses this is called the ‘Address Space’.

64-bit Processor

     A 64-bit CPU has general purpose, floating point unit and address registers that are 64-bit wide, meaning they, can handled 64-bit wide code in one pass-twice as wide as a 32-bit processor and they can address much more memory. Both AMD and Intel currently produce 64-bit CPUs.

Multicore CPU

     CPU clock speeds hit a practical limit of roughly 4GHz around the years 2002-2003, motivating the CPU makers to find new ways to get more processing power for CPU’s. Although Intel & AMD had different opinions about 64-bit CPU’s both decided at Virtually the same time to combine two CPU’s into a single chip; creating a dual-core Architecture. Dual Core isn’t just two CPU has two execution units-two sets of pipeline but the two sets of pipeline share caches and RAM. Both AMD and Intel also produce multicore. CPU’s of four or eight cores on a Single Chip.

Pentium

Intel popular processor line as now was around for over 10 years. Intel Pentium has 64 bit data bus & 32 bit address bus. Pentium processor consumes 5 volts. Later version ran at more modem standard of 3.3 volts.

-         P4 processor supports 4 GB RAM